Preparing
for the Invasion
"Everything indicates
that the enemy will launch an offensive
against the western front of Europe,
at the latest in the spring, perhaps
even earlier...."
--Adolf Hitler, Directive
No. 51, November 3, 1943
From 1941 to 1944 America and its allies
pursued the goal of defeating "Germany
First." Their strategy rested on
a key assumption, ultimately there would
have to be a massive invasion of Northwest
Europe aimed at the heart of the Axis
empire. This would reduce German pressure
on the Soviet Union by creating a true
"second front" in Europe.
Germany would be trapped between the
Soviets in the east and the Americans
and British in the west.
By 1943 success on the battlefield and
production in the factories made it
possible to begin formal planning for
this bold operation,the largest amphibious
invasion in history. The target date
was spring 1944.
In Berlin, Hitler understood that an
invasion would come. Fortification of
the coast of Northwest Europe was already
underway. In 1943 its pace accelerated
and more troops were posted in the west.
The Germans expected the invasion in
early 1944. They knew that it would
determine the war's outcome. What they
did not know was precisely when and
where the Allies would strike.
Operation
Overlord
 |
"This
operation is not being planned with
any alternatives. This operation is
planned as a victory, and that's the
way it's going to be. We're going down
there, and we're throwing everything
we have into it, and we're going to
make it a success."--General Dwight
D. Eisenhower
Formal planning for the invasion of Northwest
Europe began in 1943. A group led by British
General Frederick Morgan searched for the
best point along the coast to strike and
started drawing up assault plans. In May,
at an Allied conference in Washington, D.C.,
a target date of spring 1944 was set for
the long-awaited attack.
In December 1943 a commander for the operation
was selected. The choice was an American,General
Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower had directed
Allied invasion forces in North Africa and
Italy. He took up his new post,Supreme Commander
Allied Expeditionary Force,in January 1944.
Eisenhower approved of Morgan's selection
of the Normandy coast in France as the invasion
site, but he increased the size of the assault
force. He and his staff then prepared the
details of a plan to organize, transport,
land, and supply the largest amphibious
invasion force in history.
The operation was code-named "Overlord."
The outcome of the war rested upon its success.
Operation
Overlord
The plan for Operation Overlord entailed
landing nine divisions of sea and airborne
troops, over 150,000 men, along a 50-mile
stretch of coast in just 24 hours.
On D-Day, three airborne divisions, one
British and two American, would drop behind
the landing beaches. Their job,seize beach
exits, capture key transportation and communication
points, and block German counterattacks.
Six divisions would assault the five landing
beaches. Each beach had a code name. Utah
Beach was assigned to the U.S. 4th Division.
The US 29th and 1st Divisions would land
at Omaha Beach. Further east, the British
50th Division would assault Gold Beach and
the Canadian 3rd Division would attack at
Juno Beach. The British 3rd Division would
take Sword Beach.
The
Commanders
 |
"In a war such
as this, when high command invariably
involves a president, a prime minister,
six chiefs of staff, and a horde of
lesser 'planners,' there has got to
be a lot of patience, no one person
can be a Napoleon or a Caesar."
--General Dwight
D. Eisenhower, diary entry, February
23, 1942
The seven men selected to lead Overlord,
three American, four British, sat down
together for the first time in January
1944. All had at least 30 years of military
experience, and were regarded by their
peers as exceptional in their fields.
Many had served together in previous
campaigns, and almost all had participated
in the amphibious assaults in the Mediterranean
Theater of Operations. They knew that
Overlord would require Allied collaboration
on an unprecedented scale.
In the months leading up to D-Day the
commanders worked around the clock,
planning strategic and tactical operations,
conducting training exercises, and coordinating
the resources and efforts of ground,
air, and naval forces. There were numerous
setbacks, many stemming from personality
clashes and conflicting beliefs about
the best course of action. When tempers
flared, Eisenhower, as Supreme Commander,
intervened to ease tensions among his
colleagues so that Overlord would not
be jeopardized. It was essential that
they cooperate in what Winston Churchill
called "much the greatest thing
we have ever attempted."
Commander, US Ground Forces
Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley
Affectionately called "the GI's
General" for his unassuming manner
and his concern for his soldiers, Bradley
was one of the most beloved commanders
in the US Army. He spent much of his
early career as an instructor at his
alma mater, West Point, and at the Infantry
School at Fort Benning. While at Fort
Benning, he played a key role in the
expansion of the airborne forces. After
America entered World War II, Bradley
took command of the US 82nd Airborne
Division. He hoped to lead the airborne
troops into battle, but after only a
few months he was ordered to Louisiana
to rebuild a weak division of the National
Guard. It wasn't until 1943 that Bradley
went overseas, to North Africa. He joined
his old friends, Eisenhower and General
George Patton, for the Tunisian and
Sicilian campaigns, before Eisenhower
selected him to command the US ground
forces for Overlord.
Commander, Allied Ground Forces
General Sir Bernard L. Montgomery
As commander of the victorious British
Army in North Africa, "Monty"
enjoyed enormous popularity among both
his troops and the British people. His
military achievements won him the respect
of his fellow soldiers, including his
Desert War opponent, Erwin Rommel. But
his arrogant, rigid, and abrasive manner
earned him a reputation as one of the
most difficult and controversial commanders
of World War II. He was unreceptive
to suggestions, and his cautious approach
to combat led other Allied commanders
to view him as weak and indecisive.
And although he developed a grudging
respect for Eisenhower, he made no effort
to hide his contempt for the Americans,
whom he regarded as second-rate soldiers.
Omar Bradley, who worked closely with
Monty during invasion preparations,
said, "He left me with the feeling
that I was a poor country cousin whom
he had to tolerate."
Commander, Allied Naval Forces
Fleet Admiral Sir Bertram H. Ramsay
The oldest of the Overlord commanders,
Ramsay had served in the Royal Navy
for over 40 years. His experience with
naval operations in the English Channel
during both world wars made him particularly
well suited to command the Normandy
invasion fleet. After World War II began,
Ramsay was put in charge of laying minefields
and establishing antisubmarine patrols
along the Channel, the last line of
defense between Britain and German-occupied
Europe. He was knighted by King George
VI for his success in the evacuation
of nearly 340,000 Allied troops from
Dunkirk in June 1940. At the time, this
was the largest amphibious operation
in history. Ramsay worked closely with
Eisenhower and Tedder during the Allied
landings in North Africa and Sicily,
and Eisenhower was glad to have him
appointed to Overlord. He called Ramsay
"a most competent commander of
courage, resourcefulness, and tremendous
energy."
Commander, Allied Air Forces
Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory
Leigh-Mallory achieved notoriety as
a fighter commander in 1940, when he
launched a controversial, though successful,
offensive campaign against the Luftwaffe
during the Battle of Britain. Although
he was a competent airman, his blatant
disregard for authority, combined with
a brash, argumentative style, made him
extremely unpopular. As commander of
the Allied air forces for Overlord,
he was responsible for leading tactical
air operations against both the Luftwaffe
and German ground forces. But his authority
was undermined by a dispute over the
strategic bomber forces. Leigh-Mallory
had little experience with bombing campaigns,
and the British and American bomber
commanders refused to take their orders
from him. Air Chief Marshal Tedder assumed
control over strategic operations, leaving
Leigh-Mallory free to focus solely on
the crucial matter of tactical fighter
support for front-line ground troops.
Chief of Staff Lieutenant General
Walter Bedell Smith
From 1911, when he joined the Indiana
National Guard as a 16-year old, Walter
"Beetle" Smith advanced slowly
but steadily up the army ranks. But
it wasn't until the 1930s that his abilities
drew significant notice. While attending
the Infantry School at Fort Benning,
he attracted the attention of two of
his instructors, Omar Bradley and General
George C. Marshall. In 1939, Marshall,
at Bradley's urging, appointed Smith
to the War Department. After Pearl Harbor,
Smith was promoted to Secretary of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff. He was so highly
valued by Marshall that it was only
after Eisenhower pleaded to have Smith
as his Chief of Staff that Marshall
agreed to let him go. Smith was an excellent
military manager and, as Eisenhower's
right-hand man, provided administrative
and moral support, helping the SHAEF
staff prepare for Overlord. Eisenhower
called him "a godsend."
Deputy Supreme Commander, Allied
Expeditionary Force Air Chief Marshal
Sir Arthur Tedder
By the time Eisenhower named Arthur
Tedder as his Deputy Commander, the
two men had already worked together
in three invasion operations. Eisenhower
described Tedder "not only as a
brilliant airman but as a staunch supporter
of the 'allied' principle." In
North Africa, Tedder introduced an effective
campaign of surgical "carpet"
bombing to knock out strategic German
defenses and supply lines. His air forces
also carried out successful strikes
against German targets in Sicily and
Italy, in support of advancing ground
troops. For Overlord, he would be responsible
for identifying bombing targets and
coordinating the activities of Allied
air and ground forces. One of the most
challenging aspects of his job would
be working with uncooperative air commanders
who refused to relinquish control of
their forces. But by the spring of 1944,
Tedder had managed to consolidate American
and British air forces into one Allied
air command.
Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary
Force General Dwight D. Eisenhower
"When pressure mounts and strain
increases everyone begins to show the
weaknesses in his makeup. It is up to
the Commander to conceal his: above
all to conceal doubt, fear, and distrust."
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight Eisenhower's military career
began at West Point, where he met classmate
and future colleague, Omar Bradley.
Although "Ike" showed promise,
he was notorious for playing pranks
and flaunting regulations. In a class
of 164, he ranked 125th in discipline.
After graduation he distinguished himself
as a trainer and strategist. But he
was eager to experience combat, and
frustrated when he was kept stateside
during World War I. His opportunity
for combat command finally came during
World War II, when he directed Allied
forces in North Africa, Sicily, and
Italy. He was selected to lead Overlord
not only because of his success in the
Mediterranean, but because of his ability
to balance the diverse personalities
of the commanders involved in the operation.
Even Bernard Montgomery, whose relationship
with Eisenhower was often strained,
said of him, "He has the power
of drawing the hearts of men towards
him .... He merely has to smile at you,
and you trust him at once."
 |
SHAEF:
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary
Force
The organization formed to direct Overlord
was known as Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary
Force (SHAEF). SHAEF was created in January
1944. It replaced an earlier Allied planning
organization, COSSAC (Chief of Staff to the
Supreme Allied Commander). COSSAC had mapped
out the original invasion plans in 1943.
Based in Norfolk House on the outskirts
of London, SHAEF was the administrative
center for Overlord planning and operations.
All of the commanders in the Allied Expeditionary
Force reported to Eisenhower. Though the
leaders of the ground forces, General Bernard
Montgomery and General Omar Bradley, were
not technically part of SHAEF, they took
their orders directly from the Supreme Commander
and worked closely with SHAEF staff.
The Invasion
Site: Keeping Hitler Guessing
The main objective of Allied deception strategy
was to convince the Germans that an invasion
would indeed take place, but not at Normandy.
The most obvious choice for an invasion
site was Calais, located at the narrowest
part of the English Channel, only 22 miles
from Great Britain. Hitler was almost certain
that the Allies would attack here. The Allies
encouraged Hitler's belief by employing
an ingenious ruse. Throughout southeastern
England they built phony armies, complete
with dummy planes, ships, tanks, and jeeps.
With the help of British and American motion
picture crews, they created entire army
bases that would look authentic to German
reconnaissance aircraft. These "bases"
gave the impression of a massive Allied
buildup in preparation for an invasion of
France at Calais.
The ruse worked. Hitler ordered a heavy
concentration of troops and artillery in
the Pas-de-Calais region. In doing so, he
left Normandy with fewer defenders.
Maintaining
the Overlord Secret
As the invasion date approached, the Allies
began tactical operations to prevent the
Germans from reinforcing Normandy. These
operations, crucial to Overlord's success,
included an element of deception.
In spring 1944 SHAEF initiated the Transportation
Plan, using bombers to destroy rail centers
and bridges serving northwestern France.
The aim was to cut supply lines to the German
forces in Normandy. To avoid giving away
the invasion's location, Allied aircraft
also conducted bombing and reconnaissance
missions near Calais.
Just before the invasion commenced, additional
diversionary tactics would begin. Small
groups of Allied ships and planes would
head towards Calais, transmitting electronic
signals to simulate the approach of a large
invasion fleet on German radar.
Plans to isolate and confuse German forces
in Normandy were aided by the French Resistance.
Before D-Day, this secret army provided
Allied planners with reports about German
positions and activities in Normandy. Once
the invasion began, they would sabotage
railroad tracks and cut power and communication
lines.
A
Bodyguard of Lies
 |
"In wartime,
truth is so precious that she should
always be attended by a bodyguard
of lies."
--Prime Minister
Winston Churchill, 1943
The success of Operation Overlord depended
heavily on preventing Hitler from learning
the date and location of the invasion.
If the Germans were to gain advance
knowledge of D-Day, the outcome could
be disastrous. Additional divisions
and arms could easily be deployed to
Normandy in time to stop an Allied assault
at the beach. The Allies needed to devise
a plan that would keep the Germans in
the dark about the invasion preparations.
Winston Churchill was one of the chief
architects of the Overlord deception
plan, which was code-named "Bodyguard."
Churchill's enthusiasm for including
elaborate deceptions in major offensive
campaigns stemmed, in large part, from
the failure of earlier amphibious operations,especially
those at Dieppe in World War II and
at Gallipoli in World War I.
In late 1943, more than six months before
D-Day, the Allies,aided by the French
Resistance, German double agents, and
their own elaborate intelligence operations,
began strategic and tactical operations
to keep the Germans out of Normandy.
The ENIGMA Riddle
The ENIGMA machine was an ingenious
encrypting device employed by the Germans
since the 1920s. During World War II
it was used by German military and intelligence
forces to transmit classified information.
With over 200 trillion possible letter
combinations, its code was hailed by
the Germans as unbreakable. They were
unaware, however, that the Allies had
cracked the code with the help of Polish
cryptographers who had broken some of
the ENIGMA keys before the war.
ENIGMA and D-Day Deception Plans
By 1940 British intelligence was able
to read much of the ENIGMA radio traffic.
Information gathered from decrypted
messages was known by the code name
ULTRA. This breakthrough enabled the
Allies to monitor German troop movements
and gauge German reactions to Allied
activity. It proved invaluable to the
D-Day deception planners because it
permitted them to see if the Germans
accepted their misinformation as truth.
Based on the German response, the Allies
could alter their efforts as needed
to maintain the ruse.
How Did ENIGMA Work?
Despite its complex system of wires,
plugs, and ciphering wheels, the ENIGMA
machine was fairly simple to use. The
operator just typed the letters of a
message,the machine's internal mechanisms
did the rest. Pressing a key sent an
electrical current through the plugboard
wiring and activated the wheels. The
wheels rotated to produce an encrypted
letter, which lit up above the keyboard.
The code changed according to the wheel
and plug positions. Each configuration
produced a different scrambled letter.
To read or write a coded message, the
operator wrote down all of the letters
as they lit up. Operators were given
monthly charts to indicate the daily
settings, because a message enciphered
by an ENGIMA machine could be deciphered
only by another ENIGMA machine with
the same settings.
"Rupert": D-Day's
Smallest Soldier
Early on D-Day morning "Ruperts"
would be dropped with several real paratroopers
east of the invasion zone, in Normandy
and the Pas-de-Calais. The dummies were
dressed in paratrooper uniforms, complete
with boots and helmets. To create the
illusion of a large airborne drop, the
dummies were equipped with recordings
of gunfire and exploding mortar rounds.
The real troops would supply additional
special effects, including flares, chemicals
to simulate the smell of exploded shells,
and amplified battle sounds. This operation,
code-named "Titanic," was
designed to distract and confuse German
forces while the main airborne forces
landed further to the west.
GIs
in Britain
 |
"After enduring all the ordeals and training
in England, we felt like we were completely
ready for anything, and we were very ready
to fight the Germans, and we looked forward
to the day that we could actually get into
the real fight."
--Sgt. Bob Slaughter,
116th Infantry Regiment,
US 29th Division
Operation Overlord required a massive buildup
of men and supplies in Great Britain, the
training zone and staging area for the invasion.
American troops began arriving in 1942.
Eventually there would be over 1.5 million
American soldiers, sailors, and airmen in
the United Kingdom. They joined divisions
of British and Canadian troops, along with
smaller contingents from France, Poland,
and other nations.
The presence of so many Americans caused
some problems. The Yanks were paid four
times what British troops received. This,
and the attention the Americans paid to
British women, bred resentment. "Overpaid,
oversexed and over here." That was
how some in Britain described the Americans.
There was also tension within the American
forces between black and white GIs. When
they mixed in pubs there were often fights,
too often culminating in a shooting. The
army took to segregating the pubs.
For the most part, however, the American
"occupation" of Britain was carried
out with remarkable success. It helped beyond
measure that everyone had the same ultimate
objective.
The Big Buildup
The amount of supplies required for the
Normandy invasion was staggering. It included
everything needed to outfit, feed, and arm
millions of soldiers, sailors, and airmen.
There were tanks, jeeps, trucks, warships,
warplanes, field artillery, ammunition,
rations, and medical supplies. One of the
key supply problems was assembling a fleet
of landing craft and ships large enough
to carry ashore six divisions of troops
in one day. A variety of amphibious craft
were gathered,from giant LSTs to LCVPs,
DUKWs (floating two-and-a-half-ton trucks)
and specially equipped tanks capable of
swimming to shore.
The invasion buildup took two years to
complete. Much of the supplies and equipment,
over 5 million tons, came with the Americans.
By the spring of 1944 Great Britain was
transformed into what General Eisenhower
described as "the greatest operating
military base of all time."
Assault Training
The Allied troops preparing for D-Day pursued
a routine of intense training. They spent
hours at firing ranges, underwent physical
conditioning, and became familiar with different
landing craft. There were assault exercises
at beach training sites. The men practiced
exiting landing craft. They crawled under
barbed wire while live fire passed over
their heads. Engineers were trained to demolish
beach obstacles and blow up mines. Army
Rangers scaled cliffs. Paratroopers made
day and night jumps and endured three-day
forced marches.
Fortress
Europe
 |
The amount of supplies required for the
Normandy invasion was staggering. It included
everything needed to outfit, feed, and arm
millions of soldiers, sailors, and airmen.
There were tanks, jeeps, trucks, warships,
warplanes, field artillery, ammunition,
rations, and medical supplies. One of the
key supply problems was assembling a fleet
of landing craft and ships large enough
to carry ashore six divisions of troops
in one day. A variety of amphibious craft
were gathered,from giant LSTs to LCVPs,
DUKWs (floating two-and-a-half-ton trucks)
and specially equipped tanks capable of
swimming to shore.
The invasion buildup took two years to
complete. Much of the supplies and equipment,over
5 million tons,came with the Americans.
By the spring of 1944 Great Britain was
transformed into what General Eisenhower
described as "the greatest operating
military base of all time."
Assault Training
The Allied troops preparing for D-Day pursued
a routine of intense training. They spent
hours at firing ranges, underwent physical
conditioning, and became familiar with different
landing craft. There were assault exercises
at beach training sites. The men practiced
exiting landing craft. They crawled under
barbed wire while live fire passed over
their heads. Engineers were trained to demolish
beach obstacles and blow up mines. Army
Rangers scaled cliffs. Paratroopers made
day and night jumps and endured three-day
forced marches.
Fortifying
the Coast
Hitler envisioned the Atlantic Wall as an
unbreakable barrier, fortified with enough
artillery and manpower to foil even a massive
invasion attempt. Plans called for 15,000
concrete bunkers, ranging in size from small
pillboxes to great fortresses. Three hundred
thousand troops would man these defenses.
The fortifications would be built by Organization
Todt, the elite construction group of the
Nazi Party. The workforce consisted of over
500,000 men, many of them prisoners or civilians
from German-occupied nations, who were used
as slave labor. But in January 1944, the
Atlantic Wall fortifications were still
incomplete, and Rommel had doubts as to
whether these defenses would be sufficient.
Deadly Obstacles As further protection
against invasion, Rommel ordered the placement
of mined beach obstacles along the French
coast. Simple yet deadly, these obstacles
were positioned across entire beachfronts.
At high tide, many of them were virtually
invisible.
These obstacles created a dilemma for Allied
invasion planners. If their attack came
during high tide, many landing craft would
hit mines. But if it took place during low
tide, troops would have to cross a wider
portion of beach while under enemy fire.
Final Preparations
In the final days before D-Day, the assault
troops received new uniforms and equipment,
as well as these special supplies issued
specifically for the invasion. General Bradley
severely restricted the number of items
issued to soldiers, so that they would not
be weighed down by extra gear when they
landed in Normandy. But even lightly equipped,
the average soldier would carry about 75
pounds of equipment onto the beaches.
- Order of the Day
SHAEF issued this to the men taking part
in the invasion. Many saved their copy
of the order.
- Extra boxes of matches
- Vomit bags
Because of the limited number of vomit
bags, many GIs resorted to using their
helmets instead.
- Antiseasickness pills
For thousands of soldiers these pills
had no effect other than inducing extreme
drowsiness. Replica
- 200 francs of invasion
currency
These notes were legal tender in occupied
France, even though most were printed
in the United States.
- French Language Guide
- Lifebelt
- Ration heating units
Each can contained a fuel tablet that,
when lit, served as a small stove.
- Paperback book
The government provided millions of these
easy-to-carry books to the military. Paperbacks
were available before the war, but mass
production began only after they were
popularized by the GIs.
- Pocket Guide to France
- Condoms
Troops found these useful in keeping sand
and water out of rifle barrels.
- Raincoat
- Insecticide powder
- Water purification tablets
- Extra pair of gas-protective
socks
- Extra candy bars
- Extra razor blade
- Pliofilm rifle cover
Soldiers could put their rifles in these
plastic waterproof bags to protect them
from water damage during the trip across
the Channel.
- Extra cigarette packs
- Chewing gum Replicas
 |
The
Invasion Begins
The Invasion
Force Gathers...and Waits
"All southern England was one vast military
camp, crowded with soldiers awaiting final
word to go.... The mighty host was tense as
a coiled spring...coiled for the moment when
its energy should be released and it would
vault the English Channel in the greatest
amphibious assault ever attempted." --
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
In the first week of May 1944 the soldiers
and sailors of the invasion force began
descending on southern England. They came
by boat, train, bus, or on foot from bases
all over Great Britain. Almost 2 million
men and nearly half a million vehicles were
assembled. It was the greatest mass movement
of armed forces in the history of the British
and American armies. Upon their arrival
in southern England, the men were confined
in marshaling areas. There they began to
be briefed about their mission.
General Eisenhower had set D-Day for June
5. Loading for the assault started on May
31. That night, the first part of the massive
naval operation began when minesweepers
moved out to start clearing channels for
the armada.
Then, on June 4, with the great invasion
force poised to go, trouble struck. A large
storm arose in the English Channel. Eisenhower
faced an agonizing decision,should he postpone
the invasion?
The
Decision to Go
 |
"The waiting for history to be made was
the most difficult. I spent much time in prayer.
Being cooped up made it worse. Like everyone
else, I was seasick and the stench of vomit
permeated our craft."
-- Pvt. Clair Galdonik,
359th Infantry Regiment,
US 90th Division
D-Day was scheduled for June 5, 1944. But
on the eve of the invasion, as the air and
sea armada began to assemble, a storm arose
in the English Channel. It threatened the
success of the operation.
At 6:00 A.M. on June 4, Eisenhower decided
to postpone the invasion for at least one
day, hoping for better weather on June 6.
For the next 24 hours the men of the Allied
invasion force remained sealed aboard their
ships. Cramped and tense, they waited. At
their bases in England, the pilots and airborne
troops also marked time. Everything depended
on the weather and the decision of the man
in charge of Overlord, General Eisenhower.
On the Continent the Germans were confident
that the storm in the Channel would postpone
any planned Allied invasion. Rommel took
the opportunity to return to his home in
Germany to visit his family.
In the early hours of June 5, Eisenhower
pondered the weather reports and the conflicting
advice of his inner circle of advisers.
Around noon on June 5, Eisenhower sat at
a portable table and wrote a note, which
he placed inside his wallet. Pressure or
fatigue led him to misdate it "July
5."
"Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre
area have failed to gain a satisfactory
foothold and I have withdrawn the troops.
My decision to attack at this time and place
was based upon the best information available.
The troops, the air and the Navy did all
that Bravery and devotion to duty could
do. If any blame or fault attaches to the
attempt it is mine alone. -- July 5"
The American
Airborne
The US 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions
landed behind Utah Beach. The mission of
the "Screaming Eagles" of the
US 101st Airborne was to seize the causeways
that served as exits from Utah and capture
or destroy bridges over the Douve River.
The "All Americans" of the US
82nd Airborne were to destroy other Douve
bridges and capture the town of Sainte-Mére-Église.
Things went badly for the Americans at
first. Flying in darkness and under fire
from German forces, many pilots dropped
their men far from planned landing zones.
Scattered and disorganized, the troops were
forced to improvise. Though they achieved
few of their objectives initially, they
did confuse the Germans and disrupt their
operations. By late morning, Sainte-Mére-Église
was captured. The exit causeways from Utah
Beach were secured by 1:00 P.M.
The British
Airborne
The British 6th Airborne Division dropped
behind Sword Beach. Their goals-capture
two bridges over the Caen Canal and Orne
River, destroy bridges over the Dives River,
and neutralize the giant German artillery
battery at Merville. The British operations
went well. The most notable was the daring
capture of the "Pegasus" bridge
over the Orne Canal by gliderborne troops
under the command of Major John Howard.
Special Weapons
and Equipment
Because of the special nature of airborne
operations, paratroopers and glidermen received
items that were not used by ground troops.
They carried lighter weapons, as well as
other equipment that could sustain them
for several days if they were unable to
link up with other soldiers right away.
Zane Schlemmer
US 82nd Airborne Division
Nineteen-year-old Sergeant Zane Schlemmer
of the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment,
US 82nd Airborne Division landed in an orchard
in Picauville-over a mile off-target. He
fashioned this scarf from a parachute he
found nearby and wore it until the war's
end.
"We had jumped extremely low... and
I hit in a hedgerow apple orchard, coming
up with very sore bruised ribs.... I landed
on the Pierre Cotelle farm, which was about
a mile and half from where I should have
landed.... After I landed, cleared my parachute
and all, I could not join up with my people
because of German fire coming from the farm
house.... the firing was quite overwhelming....
I was alone. I had no idea where the hell
I was other than being in France."
Eventually Schlemmer joined other paratroopers
defending a hill near the Mederet River.
He stayed in combat until July, when he
was wounded.
The best-known piece of equipment carried
by the American airborne troops was a brass
"cricket"-a small toy that made
a clicking sound when squeezed. Crickets
were issued to the men so that they could
identify one another in the dark.
One cricket was carried on D-Day by 22-year-old
Private Ford McKenzie of the US 101st Airborne
Division. He landed at 1:15 A.M. near the
town of Sainte-Mére-Église.
McKenzie wore his cricket on a string around
his neck. One click on the cricket was supposed
to be answered with two clicks. The troops
also had a password, "flash."
It was to be answered with "thunder."
"If you didn't click back, it was
assumed you were the soon-to-be-dead enemy."
McKenzie later jumped into Holland and
was with the US 101st Airborne Division
at Bastogne
Silent Wings
into Normandy
A recreation depicts the aftermath of the
crash of a CG-4A Waco glider in Normandy
during the early morning hours of June 6,
1944.
Many airborne troops landed in Normandy
in specially designed gliders that could
transport soldiers, jeeps and light artillery.
American-designed Waco CG-4A gliders and
British Horsa Mark II and Hamilcar gliders
were towed across the English Channel by
Douglas C-47 Dakota transport planes and
British Albemarle, Halifax, and Stirling
bombers. Over Normandy, the tow ropes were
released and the gliders descended to earth.
Constructed of canvas and plywood, the
Allied gliders were aptly nicknamed "flying
coffins." Many broke into pieces when
they crashed into hedgerows or walls. Losses
among the glidermen were high. Some of the
dead, including one general, were crushed
by jeeps or other equipment during crash
landings.
Night
Drop Into Normandy
 |
"I looked at my watch and it was 12:30.
When I got into the doorway, I looked out
into what looked like a solid wall of tracer
bullets. I said to myself, 'Len, you're in
as much trouble now as you're ever going to
be in. If you get out of this, nobody can
ever do anything to you that you ever have
to worry about!'"
--Pvt. Leonard Griffing,
501st Parachute Infantry Regiment,
US 101st Airborne Division
The first men to see action on D-Day were
the airborne troops. Three airborne divisions,two
American and one British, dropped behind
the landing beaches in the hours before
dawn. Over 20,000 men, the largest airborne
force ever assembled,entered Normandy by
glider and parachute.
The overall mission of the airborne divisions
was to disrupt and confuse the Germans so
as to prevent a concentrated counterattack
against the seaborne troops coming in at
dawn, and to protect the flanks of the invasion
force at Sword and Utah beaches.
Crashing into farm fields in fragile gliders,
or descending in parachutes amid antiaircraft
fire, the airborne troops suffered heavy
casualties. In the darkness and confusion
of the pre-dawn hours, many units became
scattered and disorganized. Some men who
landed in flooded areas drowned. Despite
these difficulties, groups of soldiers managed
to form up and attack the enemy.
The
Armada Strikes
 |
"Ships and boats of every nature and
size churned the rough Channel surface, seemingly
in a mass so solid one could have walked from
shore to shore. I specifically remember thinking
that Hitler must have been mad to think that
Germany could defeat a nation capable of filling
the sea and sky with so much ordnance."
Lt. Charles
Mohrle, P-47 pilot
Even as the armada neared the French coast,
German commanders did not believe that an
Allied invasion was imminent. There were
no Luftwaffe or naval patrols in the area.
German radar finally detected the huge fleet
at about 3:00 A.M., but with Rommel at home
in Germany, there was no one who could dispatch
additional divisions to Normandy. The invasion
force remained unchallenged until daybreak,
when the German coastal batteries opened
fire.
Just before the first waves of troops landed,
Allied bombers and naval artillery launched
a massive assault against the German positions
along the coast. For 35 minutes, the landing
area was pounded by over 5,000 artillery
rounds and 10,000 tons of bombs.
Amid the deafening noise of the artillery
barrage, LCVPs and other small craft headed
for shore. They were rocked by waves that
left the men soaking wet,and violently seasick.
Shivering from the cold and wind, and weighed
down by waterlogged gear, the soldiers prepared
to land on the beach. It was almost H-Hour.
The Air Armada
On June 6 the sky over the English Channel
swarmed with transport planes, gliders,
bombers, and fighters. Bombers targeted
German supply lines across northern France
and patrolled the coast watching out for
enemy forces. Over 1,000 fighters flew directly
above the convoys to protect them from Luftwaffe
attack. Although the presence of the fighter
escorts reassured the seaborne troops, some
fighters were shot at by nervous ship gunners
who mistook them for German planes. As it
turned out, the Luftwaffe was virtually
absent on D-Day. Allied air forces controlled
the skies.
The Air and
Sea Armada
With more than 11,000 aircraft, 6,000 naval
vessels, and 2 million soldiers, sailors,
and airmen from 15 countries, the invasion
force assembled for Overlord was the greatest
in history. Not all of these forces were
deployed on June 6, many arrived as reinforcements
after the initial landings. Winston Churchill
called Overlord "the most difficult
and complicated operation that has ever
taken place."
The Sea Armada
With nearly 5,000 vessels, the invasion
fleet deployed on June 6 was an inspiring
and impressive sight. An American bomber
pilot, looking down at the fleet, observed,
"We could see the battleships firing
at the coast. And literally you could have
walked, if you took big steps, from one
side of the Channel to the other. There
were that many ships out there." But
the sight of the approaching armada terrified
the Germans stationed on the coast. One
German officer marveled, "It's impossible
... there can't be that many ships in the
world."
Caption for map showing sea routes: Seaborne
Troop Routes On the morning of June 5, the
ships and boats assigned to the assault
forces embarked from various ports along
the coast of Great Britain. They sailed
for the assembly area, which was nicknamed
"Piccadilly Circus." After the
minesweepers swept sea lanes clear of German
minefields, the assault convoys moved into
transport areas located 11 miles off their
assigned beaches. Here the troops transferred
to LCVPs and other landing craft that would
bring them to shore.
D-Day Naval
Vessels
Over 50 types of naval craft participated
in the initial assault operations. The sea
armada included warships, escort ships,
patrol and torpedo boats, and landing craft
of various sizes and shapes. Most were American
and British, but the Canadian, French, Polish,
Norwegian, Dutch, and Greek navies also
contributed ships and personnel. All vessels
crossed the Channel under their own power
except for the smallest landing craft, which
were transported on the larger boats.
The
Landing Beaches
|
"It was a weird feeling, to hear those
heavy shells go overhead. Some of the guys
were seasick. Others, like myself, just stood
there, thinking and shivering. There was a
fine rain and a spray, and the boat was beginning
to ship water. Still, there was no return
fire from the beach, which gave us hope that
the navy and the air force had done a good
job. This hope died 400 yards from shore.
The Germans began firing mortars and artillery."
--Sgt. Harry Bare,
116th Infantry Regiment,
US 29th Division
As dawn came to the coast, Allied troops
approached the landing beaches. The first
waves included 30-man assault teams and
amphibious duplex (DD) tanks that plowed
through the water under their own power.
There were also army combat engineers and
navy demolition teams. Their job was to
clear beach obstacles and mark safe pathways
for the later waves.
Aboard the landing craft the men were pitched
about. Many were seasick. Tension, fear,
and anticipation were the dominant emotions.
Behind them the naval bombardment continued,
while overhead, bombers went on with their
work. The noise was tremendous. It left
an unforgettable impression on every man
who experienced it.
Closer to shore, boats began to hit mines.
The explosions lifted some entirely out
of the water. As the first waves neared
land, shelling of the beaches ceased. It
would not resume until the men were ashore
and could radio back targets. Sometime around
6:30 A.M., the first landing craft hit the
beach. D-Day had arrived on the beaches
of Normandy.
Utah
 |
"There was this barbed wire area and
a wounded officer who had stepped on an antipersonnel
mine calling for help. I decided that I should
go. I walked in toward him, putting each foot
down carefully and picked him up and carried
him back. That was my baptism. It was the
sort of behavior I expected of myself."
-- Lt. Elliot Richardson, medical detachment
Because of differences in tides, the American
beaches, Utah and Omaha, were assaulted
first.
Utah Beach was assigned to the US 4th Division.
H-Hour, when the attack would begin, was
6:30 A.M. The initial assault force included
rifle companies, combat engineers, and naval
demolition teams. There were also 32 amphibious
tanks. Four tanks sank offshore. But 28
made it safely to the beach.
As the first wave neared the coast, strong
currents swept the boats south. They beached
2,000 yards from the planned landing zone.
Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr.,
son of America's 26th president and, at
age 56, the oldest member of the assault
forces, was with the first wave. He and
other officers assessed the situation, then
quickly made a decision,they changed the
landing site to their location.
This action saved many lives. The new landing
zone was less defended than where the troops
were supposed to land. By 9:30 A.M., three
beach exits were secure. Before noon, the
US 4th Division made contact with airborne
forces behind the beach. As night fell,
they were four miles inland. All this was
achieved with remarkably few casualties,approximately
200 dead and wounded.
"When we first came in there was nothing
there but men running, turning, and dodging.
All of a sudden it was like a beehive. Boats
were able to come through the obstacles.
Bulldozers were pushing sand up against
the seawall and half-tracks and tanks were
able to go into the interior. It looked
like an anthill." --Seabee Orval Wakefield,
underwater demolition team
"I jumped out in waist-deep water.
We had 200 feet to go to shore and you couldn't
run, you could just kind of push forward....
then we had 200 yards of open beach to cross,
through the obstacles. But fortunately,
most of the Germans were... all shook up
from the bombing and the shelling and the
rockets and most of them just wanted to
surrender." --Sgt. Malvin Pike, 8th
Infantry Regiment, US 4th Division
"I saw what looked like a low wall
ahead, so I crawled for it.... To my right
was a dead GI. To my left about 40 yards
away were some GIs in the process of regrouping.
As I watched, they went over the wall, so
I decided to flip over it also. When I looked
ahead, there was no more sand; it was a
swamp of shallow water. But I was on my
way now."
Omaha
 |
Omaha Beach:
Visitors to Hell
"As our boat
touched sand and the ramp went down, I became
a visitor to hell. I shut everything out and
concentrated on following the men in front
of me down the ramp and into the water."
--Pfc. Harry Parley, 116th Infantry Regiment,
US 29th Division
If the Germans were going to stop the invasion
anywhere, it would be at Omaha Beach. A
wide, sandy beach, it was an obvious landing
site. At each end of the beach there were
cliffs running nearly perpendicular to the
water. Behind the beach was a well-fortified
bluff that rose 100 to 170 feet. The Germans
had every inch of Omaha pre-sited with deadly
crossfire.
The US 1st and 29th Divisions and men of
the 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions had to
cross Omaha Beach and seize several "draws,"
ravines set into the bluff that offered
passage inland.
Trouble began offshore. Thirty-two out
of the 36 amphibious tanks accompanying
the assault troops sank. Smoke and dust
from the naval bombardment and strong currents
pulled many boats off target. The first
waves were nearly wiped out before the men
got across the beach. Some died before they
exited their boats. Survivors crouched behind
beach obstacles or crawled up the beach
as the tide rose behind them. Many took
shelter behind a sea wall.
Follow-up waves piled up behind the first,
creating a traffic jam of men and vehicles,
easy targets for the Germans. Omaha Beach
became a killing field.
"T he first sight I got of the beach,
I was looking through a sort of slit up
there, and it looked like a pall of dust
or smoke hanging over the beach." --Lt.
Ray Nance, Executive Officer, 116th Infantry
Regiment, US 29th Division
"...we were hearing noises on the
side of the landing craft like someone throwing
gravel against it. The German machine gunners
had picked us up. Everybody yelled, 'Stay
down!'... I noticed the lieutenant's face
was a very gray color and the rest of the
men had a look of fear on their faces. All
of a sudden the lieutenant yelled to the
coxswain, 'Let her down!' The ramp dropped...."
--Pvt. H. W. Schroeder, 16th Infantry Regiment,
U.S. 1st Division
"... the craft gave a sudden lurch
as it hit an obstacle and in an instant
an explosion erupted.... Before I knew it
I was in the water.... Only six out of 30
in my craft escaped unharmed. Looking around,
all I could see was a scene of havoc and
destruction. Abandoned vehicles and tanks,
equipment strung all over the beach, medics
attending the wounded, chaplains seeking
the dead." --Pvt. Albert Mominee, 16th
Infantry Regiment, U.S. 1st Division
These chaotic photographs of Omaha Beach
were shot by famed war photographer Robert
Capa. Capa accompanied men from Company
E of the 16th Infantry Regiment, U.S. 1st
Division in the second assault wave. He
landed at the Easy Red sector. His dramatic
but chilling photographs capture soldiers
struggling through the surf and crouching
for cover behind beach obstacles and tanks.
Some men have fallen,whether from wounds
or by mishap we do not know.
Capa shot 106 photographs of the beach.
Then, his nerve broken by the carnage around
him, he climbed aboard a landing craft headed
| |
